For example, black students have reported feeling underprepared for the transition to university and adapting to academic demands, resulting in much of their time being spent catching up [4]. This leaves little time for socialising and enjoying other aspects of university life.

Ethnic minorities often feel poorly represented in their academic environment, including among professors, in the curriculum, and within the student body. Portraits of notable alumni and professors predominantly feature White individuals [5]. The material used and taught is frequently Eurocentric, neglecting other perspectives [6, 7]. This lack of representation can lead to feelings of imposter syndrome and self-doubt regarding their place at the university.

Ethnic minorities may be perceived as less desirable or beneficial friends or connections by white students [8]. This can result in the formation of cliques where ethnic minorities are disadvantaged, limiting their opportunities for social mixing due to class and ethnic differences. Consequently, opportunities for forming friendships can be uneven from the start.

Despite significant class and power differences, students are often told that it is their responsibility to form connections and make themselves desirable. This places the blame for poor social connections on the students rather than addressing the social differences that put ethnic minorities at a disadvantage [8].

Many interactions that ethnic minority students have with White peers revolve around conversations and actions that perpetuate harmful stereotypes about their groups [9]. Questions about their fluency in English, assumptions about drug use, or the use of “street slang” can make students feel othered and unwelcome, as they are treated based solely on their ethnicity and stereotypes.

Students often feel that they cannot escape their ethnic identity. For example, black students may feel that their “blackness” is always on display and subject to intense scrutiny, such as reactions of surprise at their presence on campus because others may not have encountered black individuals before [9].

Ethnic minority students may experience both overt and covert racism on campus, from peers and even university staff [6, 7]. This can manifest as microaggressions, such as commenting negatively about their food or excluding them from activities. Additionally, white fragility can create a hostile environment where any discussion about race, ethnicity, and class is met with defensiveness rather than open dialogue [5].

Institutions often promote norms and values of the dominant (often white) culture, which may differ significantly from the cultures of ethnic minorities. This mismatch can lead to feelings of isolation and alienation among ethnic minority students [10].